Matang: Romanticising the Mangroves (2)

ON FISHERMEN AND THE CHARCOAL FACTORY

A small trawler boat crusing by the mangroves of Matang.

A view of Kuala Sepetang fishing village.

Afternoon sees the placid brown rivers of Matang disturbed by incoming fishing boats. The chugging engines tear the calmness of the air previously dominated by whispers of heated updrafts carrying rounds of white bellied eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) high in the sky. Crab and prawn pots can be seen stacked highly on these smallish boats. As their bows swing towards wood-planked berths stretching out into the waters from village and warehouses, workers on the boats pulled out blue drums loaded with the day’s catch. The berths were lined with people readying to pull the drums up with metal hooks and strong muscles. The cued thud of the starboard on the berth signals a synchronised hauling of the catch from the deck to the berth in minutes. Once all catches are landed, the captain reverses the boat and head out once more to the sea. In a small frame of time, the fishing village of Kuala Sepetang laid its hands on another couple of tonnes of crustaceans.

 

The distinctive fishing village jetties of Kuala Sepetang.

A boat heading out to sea.

The livery of Kuala Sepetang’s fishing industry for the last 200 years (1) is an enduring testimony of the importance of ecosystem services provided by the mangroves. Mangroves are major nursery grounds for many fishes that inhabit the open waters of the Straits of Malacca (2). During breeding seasons, commercially important fishes such as groupers (garupa; Epinephelus), catfish (keli; Arius), snappers (ikan merah; Lutjanus) and rays (pari; Neotrigon) head into its murky waters to breed (2). The tangled roots and restrictive channels kept large predators away from the vulnerable young fry while they develop into adults.

 A selection of crustaceans such as flower crabs (Portunus pelagicus), mask crabs (Charybdis feriatus), tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) and a mantis shrimp (Harpiosquilla sp.) found often near mangroves.

These fishes also share their homes with a myriad of other mangrove residents. The celebrated dried shrimp (Acetes spp.) spreaded on the verandas of village houses, drying under the tropical sun, came from the same habitat as the fishes. The greenish-grey mud crabs (Scylla serrata), bounded and packed in rattan baskets were taken from mud banks in the wake of receding tides.

Roofs of Kuala Sepetang fishing village.

The blood clam (Anadara granosa) is a common mangrove mollusc with characteristic red blood (haemoglobin) which aides in its respiration of dissolved oxygen when the tide is far out from its mudflat habitat (4).

Blood clams (Anadara granosa), an indispensable companion of many Malaysian seafood dishes, clang by their thousands in spinning metal clam-washers. Impurities falling out of the washers form a mound beneath it. This is a mix of spiny murex snails (Murex occa, M. trapa), tiger moon snails (Natica tigrina), rock shells (Thais lacera) and sea cucumbers. The first 3 species are blood clam predators and are also increasingly popular on the menu of seafood lovers. This lot is undeniably a section of the mudflat community, which is a unique ecosystem formed by the deposition of nutrient-rich mud on the seaward side of mangrove coasts.

The well-known charcoal factory near Kuala Sepetang. 

Seafood is not the only major industry in Matang’s mangroves. The continual management of mangroves is motivated by the well-known charcoal industry for centuries. The Khay Hor Charcoal Factory is one of the charcoal producers. A tangy vapour of burning mangrove wood greeted me as I was taken a tour of the factory by veteran charcoal-producer Mr. Chuah Chow Aun. Boats holding mangrove logs from allocated logging plots cruises into a canal and unload their cargo. Here, they are processed into charcoal via slow burning in large traditional clay kilns. In the process, strong vapours emitted from the kiln’s outlets are condensed into tannin acid, commercially used for tightening leather but locally used as mosquito repellent. Mr. Chuah explains that the charcoal produced from Matang’s Rhizophora is dense and odourless, a quality attribute that is reflected by the high demand for his charcoal in Japan.

 

The canal where the unloading of mangrove logs takes place.

The kilns where mangrove logs are traditionally processed into charcoal.

Dark coloured Tannin acid is a byproduct of charcoal production.

The abundance of useful species is an important lifeline for the people of Kuala Sepetang. However, these are but a handful of species in the midst of the thousands of others which are very much ecologically-intertwined with them. Mangroves as a whole are an integral part of the tropical land and seascape. Its presence gave rise to a unique ecosystem which in turn, influenced other seemingly unrelated ecosystems such as coral reefs and seagrass beds (2). At a time when Malaysia is increasingly losing its mangroves (3), it is crucial to ensure that Matang's mangrove ecology and interactions are not destroyed or altered significantly under such intensive resource harvesting.  As any visitors will realise, the cultural and industrial successes of Matang hangs on the ecological balance of its mangroves.

  

Scibbles and numbers probably showing charcoal yields. The future of the charcoal industry, like many others in Matang, depends on a responsible, long-term management of mangroves.

References:

(1) Watson, JG 1928, Malayan Forest Records: Mangrove Forests of the Malay Peninsula, Forest Department, Federated Malay States.

(2) Ronnback, P 1999, 'The ecological basis for economic value of seafood production supported by mangrove ecosystems', Ecological Economics, vol. 29, pp. 235-252. (Available from: http://ecosystems.wcp.muohio.edu/studentresearch/climatechange03/productivity/pdf%27s/Mangroveseafoodproduction.pdf )

(3) Chiew, H 2008, 'Mangrove status in Malaysia', The Star, 10 June. (Available from: http://mangroveactionproject.org/news/current_headlines/mangrove-status-in-malaysia )

(4) Davenport, J and Wong, TM 1986, 'Responses of the blood cockle Anadara granosa (L.) (Bivalvia: Arcidae) to salinity, hypoxia and aerial exposure', Aquaculture, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 151-162. (Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0044848686900244 )

Matang: Romanticising the Mangroves (1)

Matang is a land of contrasts. It is where numerous mud creeks wind slowly under the endless verdant cover of mangrove stands. A land sheltering clusters of rickety stilt-houses home to generations of fishermen and wood-cutters while serving, at the same time, a refuge for mangrove wildlife. A land whose ecosystem is among the biggest carbon sinks on Earth (1) and yet home to one of the largest charcoal industry in the country (2). Under this paradoxical coexistence, a surprising synergy unveils. This two-part series begins with a visit to the famous mangroves of Matang.

THE MANGROVES

A small river winding among the mangroves of Matang Permeanant Forest Reserve.

The road crossing Matang’s lowlands is peculiarly straight. Lining both sides of the road are the ubiquitous oil palm and the occasional clusters of coconut stands and kampong houses. I strained my eyes to look beyond the blur of passing palms as the car cruises across this unbroken plain, hoping to catch the glitter of mangrove leaves behind the silhouettes of palm fronds, but there were none. At almost 400kmsq, the mangroves of Matang Permanent Forest Reserve are touted as the largest remaining tract of its kind in Peninsular Malaysia (3). But where is it?

 The Matang Permeanant Forest Reserve is an agglomeration of mud-rich estuaries and islands cloaked in mangroves on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. 

(Picture source: 4)

Turning around the corner at the end of the road, the car came into full view of a metalled lane walled by an unbroken line of tall mangroves and dense undergrowth. The mangroves have been hiding just behind the oil palms all this while, continuing under the uniform shadow of its thick canopy. Standing at around 10 metres, this unusually tall mangrove Rhizophora apiculata has a straight trunk with branches that does not appear until right at the canopy. Its wide-arched prop roots often share the forest with the sturdy buttress roots of the Leggadai, Brugueira parviflora, which resembles the roots of lowland rainforest dipterocarps. Indeed it almost feels like I’m deep in a rainforest as I pulled into the Matang PFR visitor centre.

 

 A 65-years-old Bakau Minyak, Rhizophora apiculata displayed in situ.

The Piai Lasa, Acrostichum speciosum, is a fern highly adapted to life in the mangrove forest. It is one of the fastest-spreading plants in such habitat and hence, often compete with the planted mangrove saplings (5).

Here is the scene of fierce competition between the fast growing Piai Lasa and the planted Rhizophora saplings.

A typical scene in the Matang mangroves.

The entrance signboard to Matang PFR boardwalk.

Contrary to the putrid, mosquito-infested mangrove stereotype, Matang turns out to be exceptionally neat and fresh! A newly build boardwalk brings visitors deep into the mangrove forest heartland. Bird nest ferns and giant bracket fungi hang on the trunks and branches while fallen logs scatter among meadows of mangrove fern Piai Lasa (Acrostichum areum), Jejuru (Acanthus spp.) and mangrove saplings. The ground here, having thick layers of fallen leaves across the seemingly dry forest floor with occasional puddles of water, bears uncanny likeness to the rainforest. A chance encounter with a freshly dug puddle of mud no doubt made by wild boars (Sus scrofa) further enhances such an impression. Only a faint whiff of salty air reminds me that I am still in a mangrove, at least for a while.

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) often dig pits like these for molluscs and crustaceans (content source: 6)

A giant bracket fungi measuring almost half a metre across.

The spike-adorned Nibong, Oncosperma tigillarium, is a common palm in freshwater swamps and lowland rainforests but can also be found in drier parts of the mangrove (Content source: 7).

The Rotan Bakau (mangrove rattan), Calamus erinaceus is another peculiar plant related to the Nibong (8).

Glancing up to the canopy, I was rewarded with another surprising sight-the crown-shyness phenomena, in a mangrove forest! This is the first time I’ve seen this phenomena outside of the dipterocarp rainforest. It turns out that these were the result of abrasion between swaying branches of neighbouring trees brought by strong winds (9).

Upon closer scrutiny, the ground reveals the marine fauna component of this part of the forest. Grazing on the dead leaves are several species of the peculiar Ellobiid snails. These snails are essentially terrestrial (they are pulmonate snails ie. they breathe air through lungs) in adult form but marine in its larval stages. It requires the tides to wash its eggs into the ocean which its larva will develop and eventually settle on suitable lands in adult form. (10)

The Banded Cassidula snail, Cassidula nucleus, is a common resident of mangroves.

The Judas Ear Snail, Ellobium aurisjudae, is another Ellobiid found in mangroves.

A larger ellobiid, the Midas Ear Snail, Ellobium aurismidae.

This Spotted Littorinid snail, Littorina scabra is another well-known mangrove snail commonly found way above the water line on trunks or even leaves! Despite it able to survive above water for a considerable time, it breathes via gills (11).

A small stream winds through the thick mangrove forest.

As I wander further along the boardwalk and towards the river, the undergrowth gradually gets thinner. Eventually, only a few straws of saplings remain amongst the mingling roots of Rhizophora. Here, vivid claws of red, blue, orange and yellow male crabs vey for attention among the drab muddy background. But it is not my attention that they are seeking, as I found out when they scurried straight into their pencil-thin burrows in the ground as I approach them. Upon sensing little threat I pose to them, they eventually return to the surface and waver their oversize claws once again. This time, several drab looking female crabs approaches them. I was witnessing a mating display. 

The unique prop roots of Bakau Kurap, Rhizophora murconata.

The undergrowth grew thinner towards the river banks.

A male Rose Fiddler crab, Uca rosea with its oversized claw.

However, there is one thing about the mangrove forest that is more surprising than others. There are several clearings in the forest and distinct plots with different stages of young Rhizophora, reminding visitors that this is in fact a mangrove silviculture site. Matang PFR has a long history of mangrove forest management stretching back to 1908 and was one of the field sites where benchmark research into mangrove management strategies took place a century ago (4). There are two primary species planted in this heavily-managed ecosystem- Bakau Minyak, Rhizophora apiculata and Bakau Kurap, R.  mucronata. These species are highly sought-after for charcoal production and various structural uses in local communities.

A plot of young Rhizophora trees.

A specific area of the boardwalk built for mangrove sapling planting.

A propagule of the Brugueira. This is the ‘seedling’ which drops from a parent tree after maturing and often ends up lodge in the mud via its projectile-like end. Tidal waters then triggers roots and shoots to sprout into a sapling. (12)

As I rounded a corner and walked alongside the Rhizophora-fringed river, a distant object splashed into the water instantaneously! Adrenalin suddenly surge through me. Thoughts of getting face-to-face with the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) flashed before my eyes as I scanned desperately around to catch a glimpse of this rare and endangered beast. Knowing that this is the region where crocodiles were prime game in the 19^th Century (13), I am always on the lookout for any of their surviving descendants.  A ripple can be seen on the bank, underneath drooping Nipah (Nypa fruticans) fronds. A reptilian head peeked out from the shadows. Sigh, it was no crocodile but a Water Monitor (Varanus salvator).

The water monitor, Varanus salvator swimming along the river bank. It is an omnipresent resident of many habitats stretching from the coastline right up into the mountains, including certain areas of human settlements.

Thick stands of Rhizophora crowd the banks of the river.

Despite continuous disturbance brought on by the silviculture system, it is the biodiversity component that strikes most awe in me. There is no doubt these disturbances altered the natural ecosystem but the resource that contributed to such disturbances-the Rhizophora mangroves, is paradoxically giving the ecosystem a reason to be conserved and be managed sustainably. Inadvertently, this has also buffered various other flora and fauna from ever-encroaching land uses such as agriculture and aquaculture, which have already consumed and heavily disturbed many stretches of this unique ecosystem that exists between the land and the sea.

References:
 (1) Ong, JE 1993, 'Mangroves-a carbon source and sink', Chemosphere, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 1097-1107. (Available from: http://mangroveactionproject.org/files/resources/Ong_Mangroves%20A%20Carbon%20Source%20and%20Sink_1993.pdf )

(2) pers. comm. Chuah Chow Aun

(3) MTC 2009, 'Matang Mangroves: A Century of Sustainable Management', Timber Malaysia, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 6-11. (Available from: http://www.mtc.com.my/info/images/stories/pdf/tm-vol-15-3.pdf)

(4) Giri, C, n.d., Matang Mangrove Forest, Malaysia. (Available from: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=7131)

(5) Watson, JG 1928, Malayan Forest Records: Mangrove Forests of the Malay Peninsula, Forest Department, Federated Malay States.

(6) Baker, N 2012, Eurasian wild pig. (Available from: http://www.ecologyasia.com/verts/mammals/wild_pig.htm)

(7) FAO 2007, Ecocrop: Oncosperma tigillarium. (Available from: http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropView?id=8076)

(8) Rattan Species Diversity, 2006. (Available from: http://www.apforgen.org)

(9) Putz, FE, Parker, GG and Archibald, RM 1984, 'Mechanical Abrasion and Intercrown Spacing', American Midland Naturalist, vol. 112, no. 1, pp. 24-28. (Available from: http://www.jstor.org/pss/2425452)

(10) Apley ML 1970, 'Field Studies on Life History, Gonadal Cycle and Reproductive Periodicity in Melampus bidentatus (Pulmonata: Ellobiidae)', Malacologia, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 381-397. (Available from: http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/pdf2/002934900047355.pdf)

(11) Chapman, MG and Underwood, MJ 1999, Seashores: A Beachcomber's Guide, Univeristy of New South Wales Press, Sydney.

(12) Mangroves, 2009. (Available from: http://www.wildsingapore.com/wildfacts/plants/mangrove/mangroves.htm)

(13) Maxwell, WG 1907, In Malay Forests, William Blackwood and Sons, London.

Jagged Mountains, Hidden Tiger-Krabi's Tiger Cave Temple (Wat Tham Seua)

 

A view of a tropical limestone karst in Krabi.

The mention of tropical limestone karsts often invokes images of majestic geological monoliths of towering heights, draped in lush emerald vegetation interspersed with the oft-exposed dolomite cliffs tainted to shades of earth and soot by the accumulated detritus from calcicolous cliff-hanging plants. And if the tropics in conversation refers to Southeast Asia, a handful of locations spring to mind-notably: Vietnam's Halong Bay, Laos' Luang Prabang Karsts, Malaysia's Mulu Caves and Thailand's Andaman Coast, among others.

The town of Krabi as viewed from Wat Tham Suea's peak temple.

In this collection of breathtaking locations, the quaint town of Krabi smacks right at the heart of the Land of Smiles' heavily-touristed Southern Provinces. This peaceful town is undeniably synonymous with limestone towers; more so after the widely published panorama of Koh Hong and Koh Phi Phi, islands off the shore of mainland Krabi, which characterise in stunning cliff-islands in turquoise waters that defies imagination and borders on fantasy.

Limestone hills adorn the lands beyond Krabi as seen from the Wat Tham Suea.

Up on land, the jaw-dropping factor does not ebb as cultivated lowlands give way to gigantic karsts rising hundreds of meters into the sky. One of these towers is home to the sacred Wat Tham Seua (Tiger Cave Temple). Spotting this temple is not a difficult task as its conspicuous gold Buddha and Stupa can be seen perching atop the mountain's peak from miles away. The fact that this temple is connected to the base of the karst via a very long series of steps opens up the possibility for the public visiting it for religious and aesthetic reasons (that is, its commanding 360 degree view of the plains below and mountains beyond), as well as (in my case) to study the hill's interesting ecology.

The stairs leading to the hilltop temple is dizzying and considering the terrain and height on which it is built, one wonders how people managed to achieve such a construction feat.

It is rare that researchers could have a chance to examine a tropical fengcong-fenglin karst right from the mountain's base up to the very tip of its peak.  An opportunity in the form of the 1237 steps to the hilltop temple greatly enhance accessibility for scientists to analyse every layer of ecological niches in reference to altitudinal changes.

While ascending this unmistakably long flight of stairs, most people will first notice the steep and rather thin steps in sections along the way. Coupled with the dizzying heights and almost vertical cliffs, ascending the mountain may be the last thing on an acrophobe's mind. However, with endemic and rare wildlife and plantlife adorning its marble cliffs, enthusiasm eludes fear of heights!

The following is a list of interesting things found during the survey:

An unidentified shrub, most probably a calcicolic (limestone-loving) plant.

Chrita spesies, this genus belongs to the family Gesneriacea, which includes many ornamental plants including the African violets.

Paraboea sp., a perennial plant which leaves will dry during dry seasons and regenerate when rains arrive.

More unidentified plant!

Even more!

This herb is another limestone-loving plant similar to that found in Gua Kandu about a year ago.

A long tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) belonging to a resident troop which resides along the lower levels of the stairs. These guys know how to get downhill the fast way-by sliding down the railings!

Another Paraboea sp. Paraboeas are limestone specialists and can be found across mainland Southeast Asia.

More Chrita sp.!

An unidentified Paraboea(?). This species was also discovered by the author of this blog: Hort Log.

This is the unmistakable limestone-loving plant- Monophyllaea sp. It is a limestone-endemic genus and  the Sundaland region is its epicenter.

Another Chrita sp. This genus seems to be common in southern Thailand's karsts.

An unidentified grasshopper on limestone soils. Some insects on these hills are endemic because of their specialised adaptation to the unusual karst environment.

More identified species. This one is found on exposed rock face some 100 metres above ground level.

The weathered limestone exhibits craggy texture encrusted in dark moss and lichen carpets. These crevices are prime habitats for endemic micro-land snails.

More Chrita sp.! This time, of a maroon leaved variety. Is this the same or different species from the previous Chrita plants?

A breathtaking view of the oil-palm covered plains below-A perfect way to take a breath after the laborious climb.

Another unidentified plant!

Another Chrita species, of dark purple flowers?

A dark limestone pinnacle.

A closeup of another limestone pinnacle. Note the sharp edges of the weathered rock.

This is the primary barrier to exploration on limestone hills.

A limestone bamboo species,Dendrocalamus sp., which lives some 100 metres short of the karst mountain's exposed peak.

Another endemic, Pandanus calcis, which is found only on the karsts from Surat Thani (in the north) to Krabi (in the south). This specimen is flanked by the Dendrocalamus bamboo.

Another specimen of the Calcicolic Pandan mentioned above. Note that this is a cousin of the popular herb Frangrant Pandan or Screwpine, Pandanus amaryllifolius, which is used in Southeast Asian cuisine as an aromatic condiment.

An unidenified fern flank by Paraboea sp., on weathered rocks.

Another Gesneriacid (meaning a member of family Gesneriacea,), clinging to a rock crevice.

An unidentified plant living on the edge of the cliff face near the mountain peak.

Anothert plant belonging to the species seen earlier.

A Capparis sp.(?) found living on limestone at the side of the peak temple.

An insect found on the peak temple.

Of course, as any exploration of limestone localities, a dash of molluscan flavour to the tastes of discovery is not far away. With such variety of endemic and rare flora, comes a list of terrestrial snails of equal status.

A set of macro molluscs found during the survey. Species includes: Cyclophorus zebrinus,Hemiplecta siamensis, Macrochylamys amboinensis, Rhiostoma smithi and Plectopylis achatina.

Cyclophorus zebrinus (Benson 1836)

 

Hemiplecta siamensis (Pfeiffer 1856)

Rhiostoma smithi (Bartsch 1932)

Rhiostoma smithi (Bartsch 1932), apertural view.

Plectopylis achatina (Gray 1834)

Coming back to the aesthetic side of things, the final 1237th step is as great a welcome as the cool drinking water served. Coupled with commanding vistas of the Krabi country sprawling before my exhausted eyes (after straining for 2 whole hours, searching for calcicolic (limestone-loving) critters!), this could easily be one of the best limestone-hill climbs around.

A view of the hilltop temple; notice the weathered limestone pinnacles on which the temple is built on and around.

Looking across a forested saddle (a lower area connecting two limestone peaks) from the hilltop temple, one could see the profuse vegetation adorning the cliffs of another peak.

Stunted trees reminiscent of bonsai plants clinging to the shallow soils and crevices of the limestone peak.

The stark contrast between cultivated plains and forested karsts that are so common in Krabi is evident from this view to the East.

As for how the temple got its name, I'll leave that for you to find out!

PS: Due to the difficulty in accessing information on Southern Thailand's limestone flora species, I have only resorted to the following sources for information. Please do inform me if you have any useful information on the above plants' identification. Your help is greatly appreciated!

Useful references:
1. St. John, H. , 1963. Revision of the Genus Pandanus Stickman, Part 16. Species Discovered in Thailand and Vietnam. Pac Sci 17(4): 466-492.
 (Link: http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/4952 )

2.The Gesneriad Reference Map. (Link: http://www.gesneriads.ca/ )